Sand, Steel, and Song
The Pre-Islamic Bedouin Arabian tribes inhabited a world defined by incessant conflict, where wars and blood feuds were not merely events but cornerstones of their sociopolitical framework. This environment cultivated a distinctive sense of tribalism, setting them apart from other societies. Despite being celebrated for their poetic and literary prowess, these Arabs were often labeled “barbaric” due to their frequent armed confrontations. The imperative to assert tribal dominance or avoid dishonor in this tumultuous landscape spurred the creation of some of the most exquisite Arabic literature, which would profoundly shape the region for centuries.
This article delves into how war ethics were depicted in pre-Islamic Arabic poetry, examining the transition and evolution of these martial ethics from the Jahiliyyah (pre-Islamic) era into the early Islamic period. It will explore the nuanced relationship between conflict, honor, and the powerful role of poets in shaping and reflecting societal values during these
transformative periods
The Pre-Islamic Bedouin Arabian tribes were no strangers to the dangers posed by wars and blood feuds. In fact, the very sociopolitical organizational structures that bound individual members and blood-related families to larger tribes owe, to a great extent, a deep sense of gratitude to those wars and direct armed confrontations. These conflicts led many to label the pre-Islamic Arabs as nothing more than barbaric “blood-suckers.” The spirit of tribalism, a unique characteristic of Arabian tribes, set them apart from modern or medieval societies, whereby “the whole existence of the Bedouin was bound to his or her tribe.”
Ordained by the Almighty Allah to be regarded as the society most knowledgeable and talented in poetry, in particular, and literature, in general, the pre-Islamic and early Islamic Arabs had no rivals except from within themselves. The unprecedented socio-politico-geographical backdrop against which they lived forced tribes to patronize poets to assert superiority or, at least, to free themselves from the dark, disparaging ditches of disgrace. This fate-necessitated situation played a vital role in the cultivation of a great deal of the finest works of Arabic literature, which was to be the lingua franca for several centuries to come.
Martial poetry received appreciable attention from Arabian poets and tribes, to the extent that their poetry was said to be their entire compendium. This article, in its upcoming pages, shall try to discuss war ethics as reflected in pre-Islamic Arabic poetry and to track the transition in martial ethics over time from the Jahiliyyah to the early Islamic period.
The Bedouin Arabs and Their Background
“As nomads, owners of great flocks and herds, dwelling near bases, wandering to and fro looking for pasture in a semi-desert under the scorching sun, living in camel’s hair cloth tents, depending on caravan trade routes for booty,” the pre-Islamic Bedouin Arabs seem to have developed a natural need for raids and highly mobile rider-warriors in order to survive beneath the searing heat of the scorching summer and the cold, cloudy, snow-clad winter. They had to resort to raiding trade caravans or other tribes for their survival during droughts and famines, which is why the Bedouin Arabs valued bravery and courage so dearly and indispensably, as they might otherwise cease to exist. However, these nomad Arabs maintained a firm awareness of certain noble values including chivalry, honor, intense jealousy over women of one’s tribe, and hospitality, that made up their tribal code of conduct.
In short, it was this desert environment that molded a typical Arab’s rationality, morality, and social attitudes. A close analysis of the reasons for which the pre-Islamic Arabs fought their battles reveals that they fought for nothing as much as they did for their high sense of honor and intense pride in tribal origins, which demanded from them “blood for blood and an eye for an eye.” This very ego that members of a tribe developed among themselves became apparent in the great-mindedness of hospitality and generosity shown to friends and strangers, and in the ruthlessness and harshness in the martial treatment of enemies. In fact, in the desert, fighting seemed, at least to pre-Islamic Arabs, to be one of the few manly and honorable occupations.
Pre-Islamic Arabic Poetry
Pre-Islamic Arabic poetry developed roughly between the 5th and 7th centuries AD. It forms a major source for the Arabic language, both in grammar and vocabulary, and a reliable historical record of the political and cultural life of the time. There has never been a nation on the globe that has valued, cherished, and, in turn, been affected by, poetry like the Arabs did. The revered companion Umar ibn al-Khattab has reportedly said: “Poetry is the compendium (Diwān) of Arabs.”
Art might be for the sake of art, but poetry was not, at least for the Bedouin Arabs. The principle of simplisticism doesn’t hold true for pre-Islamic Arabic poetry, where “a single sonnet of praise could raise an entire tribe to the highest level of glory, honor, and fame” like that in the story of Al-Muhallaq and his daughters with the famous poet Al-A’sha and the story of Banu Anfun-Nāqah with the great Al-Hutay’ah, and “a disparaging verse could throw it into the abyss of disgrace and shame” like that in the story of Banu Numair with the distinguished Jarir. Unsurprisingly, poetry had a great role in establishing, maintaining, and destroying various political systems in the Arab-speaking world from the Jahiliyyah to modernity. It was used for the promotion of religion, rulers, values, and governments, thanks to the magical effect it carried within.
The 11th-century North African literary scholar Ibn Rashiq writes as he describes the Jahiliyyah period: “When there appeared a poet in a family of the Arabs, the other tribes roundabout would gather together to that family and wish them joy of their good luck. Feasts would be got ready, the women of the tribe would join together in bands, playing upon lutes, as they were wont to do at bridals, and the men and boys would congratulate one another; for a poet was a defense to the honour of them all, a weapon to ward off insult from their good name, and a means of perpetuating their glorious deeds and of establishing their fame forever. And they used not to wish one another joy but for three things – the birth of a boy, the coming to light of a poet, and the [birth] of a noble mare.”
Poets held high esteem in the pre-Islamic Arabian culture as they played a crucial role in “building their tribes and making them a unified social unit.” Poets were designated as the protectors of honor, preservers of legacy, soothsayers of the future, conveyors of news, and transmitters of the past. They used to code their tribes’ stories of heroism and genealogy albeit with their polished positive qualities into their poetry, which they also used in diplomatic arbitration, conflict resolution, and intermediation in the ransom of hostages. Pre-Islamic Arabs even had a number of market towns made primarily to host regular poetry festivals, the most famed of them being the one in ‘Ukaz.
The themes of Jahili poetry likely emphasize a heroic value system where war, wine, and women all come together. The Arabs seem to have placed a great amount of attention on poetry that was self-exalting (fakhr), invective (hijā), or martial (hamāsa) in nature, for which a handful of renowned poets chose to confine themselves largely to these genres, including Al-Harith ibn Hilliza, Antarah ibn Shaddad, and Tarafa ibn al-Abd, among others. What’s more striking is that no less than three of the seven hanged odes (Al-Muallaqat) contain explicit contents of wars and related notions.
War Ethics as Reflected in Jahili Poetry
Wars and armed confrontations were such an intrinsic part of the life of an ordinary Bedouin that the pre-Islamic nomads used a number of martial events to calculate the dates of pre-Islamic events, until the advent and popularization of the Hijri calendar. The pagan Bedouin Arabs celebrated tribal conflicts, raids, and vengeance as their raison d’être. Certain lines attributed to the poet Al-Qutami and others exhibit the all-consuming nature of intertribal warfare, where a tribe would launch attacks on its enemy tribes and even on its ally tribes if no potent enemies were to be found.
Cruelty and ruthlessness were so intrinsic in Bedouin culture that they had long used it to glorify themselves. The sense of tribality that the pre-Islamic Arabs had was so immense, as reflected in the lines of the poet Amr ibn Kulthum:
ألا لا يجهلن أحد علينا فنجهل فوق جهل الجاهلينا
(Let no one ever act ignorantly against us, lest we outdo the ignorance of the ignorant.)
When it comes to martial poetry and poets, the name of Antarah ibn Shaddad tops the chart with his ‘Song of War.’ Himself belonging to a class of pre-Islamic rider-warriors acting as local proxies in the desert backlands to sixth-century Rome and Persia, Antarah’s lines provide us with a firsthand account of the Forty-Year War between the tribes of ‘Abs and Dhubyan, which was one of the consequences of the aforementioned empires’ inability to control their own mercenaries in the region. His “Song of War” encapsulates the brutal reality of pre-Islamic tribal warfare and the social attitude towards bloodshed, whereby he says:
يدعون عنتر والرماح كأنها
أشطان بئر في لبان الأدهم
ما زلتُ أرميهم بثغرة نحره
ولبانه حتى تسربل بالدم
فازورّ من وقع القنا بلبانه
وشكا إلى بعبرة وتحمحم
ولقد شفى نفسي وأبرأ سقمها
قول الفوارس ويك عنتر أقدم
(They cry, «Antarah!» and the spears, so many
Like well-ropes pierce the dark horse›s chest deeply.
I charged them still, with his throat›s exposed hollow,
And his breast, until crimson blood did follow.
He writhed in pain, from the spears in his breast›s sting,
And cried to me with a tear and a soft neighing.
Yet what healed my soul, and eased its fierce plight,
Was the horsemen›s cry: «Woe to you, Antarah! Fight!»)
These lines illustrate the highly dreadful and chaotic backdrop of an enraging war where warhorses are adorned with long, red-blood-clad spears and arrows. They also show an unwavering Antarah ready not to turn back from war despite adversities and casualties. The last line exemplifies the unending thirst for blood in war where a mere call to come forth heals the poet of his wounds and gets his horse on its heels. Moreover, to make the martial situation more relatable and digestible for the non-combatant commoners, Antarah uses a metaphor that of a millstone whirling on its axis to refer to warriors whirling and swinging their swords over the enemies’ heads.
Pre-Islamic poetry valued vengeance as a sacred duty that is inextricably linked with tribal honor, as failure to avenge one’s kin meant no less than eternal disgrace. One can witness a lamenting Adi ibn Rabia crying over him not being able to avenge his slain brother. The poet says:
How can I age in life when a slain man/
of Taghlib still calls for a man to slay?
Similarly, Al-Shanfara’s following lines represent the sophisticated tension between violence and morality:
“We slew a pilgrim for a pilgrim slain,
one leading a beast to sacrifice for one with and matted hair:
at Mina where the stones are thrown,
in the midst of chanting pilgrims.”
Here, one of the most sacred cultural prohibitions is violated for exacting the poet’s revenge for the murder of his father.
Nevertheless, pre-Islamic Arabic poetry was not without opposing voices, albeit in a marginalized way. Poets including Zuhayr ibn Abi Sulma refused to join the war-glorifying tradition, saying:
وَما الحَربُ إِلّا ما عَلِمتُم وَذُقتُمُ
وَما هُوَ عَنها بِالحَديثِ المُرَجَّمِ
مَتى تَبعَثوها تَبعَثوها ذَميمَةً
وَتَضرُّوا إِذا ضَرَّيتُموها فَتَضرَمِ
فَتَعرُكُّمُ عَركَ الرَحى بِثِفالِها
وَتَلقَح كِشافاً ثُمَّ تَحمِل فَتَوأمِ
(And war is naught but what your souls have known and tasted,
No whispered tale, no idle guess, so loosely wasted.
When you ignite it, scorn and shame you will awaken,
And harm will seize you, as its fires fiercely are taken.
It grinds you down, as millstone turns on grinding base,
Conceiving plain, then pregnant, twins in its embrace.)
Yet, even those who condemned war and brutality like Zuhayr ibn Abi Sulma were not completely out of the then-prevalent socio-cultural ethos. It is evident from the lines of Zuhayr in his mu’allaqa where he says:
ومن لم يَذُد عن حوضه بسلاحه
يُهدَّم ومن لا يَظلم الناس يُظلم
ومن لم يصانع في أمور كثيرة
يضرّس بأنياب ويوطأ بمنسم
(He who does not defend his vital interests with his weapon
Will have them demolished; and he who does not impose on people will be imposed upon.
And he who does not show tact in many matters
Will be bitten by fangs and trampled by a hoof.)
Labeling Jahiliyyah as a period of pure barbarism wrongs the morality of definition. The tribal honor code encompassed not only fierce martial values, but also norms of hospitality and generosity. They believed that even an enemy shall be provided with food and shelter for some days. The poet Al-A’sha says:
إِنَّ الأَعَزَّ أَبانا كانَ قالَ لَنا
أوصيكُمُ بِثَلاثٍ إِنَّني تَلِفُ
الضَيفُ أوصيكُمُ بِالضَيفِ إِنَّ لَهُ
حَقّاً عَلَيَّ فَأُعطيهِ وَأَعتَرِفُ
وَالجارُ أوصيكُمُ بِالجارِ إِنَّ لَهُ
يَوماً مِنَ الدَهرِ يَثنيهِ فَيَنصَرِفُ
وَقاتِلوا القَومَ إِنَّ القَتلَ مَكرُمَةٌ
إِذا تَلَوّى بِكَفِّ المُعصِمِ العُرُفُ
(Indeed, our most esteemed father once told us:
‹I advise you concerning three things, for I am perishing:
The guest I advise you concerning the guest, for he has
A right upon me, so I give it to him and acknowledge it.
And the neighbor I advise you concerning the neighbor, for he has
A day from time that might turn him back, so he departs.
And fight the people, for killing is a virtue,
When the knot of the rein twists in the hand of the warrior.)
In conclusion, the concept of manliness (muruwwah), as for the pre-Islamic Arabs, was a comprehensive ethical system that included courage in the face of enemies, patience and endurance in sufferings, dedication to tribe, and moral integrity with values of generosity & hospitality as well. Poets like Antarah, Al-Shanfara, Al-Qutami and others voiced in support of martial prowess through their war songs, whereas those like Zuhayr and Hatim al-Tai condemned extreme indulgence in wars as moral degeneration. Even though such odd voices didn’t gain rapport for their values as much as the war songs did in a period of time whence there were people like the poet Amr ibn Kulthum, who, whilst on his deathbed, was reported to have advised his son: “The bravest warrior is he who returns to the attack, and the best death is that on the battlefield.”
War Ethics in Early Islamic Poetry
The period of transition between the pre-Islamic Jahiliyyah era and the early Islamic period was of extreme importance, at least for Arabic poetry. The Muslims of the first days of Islam viewed poetry to be unethical for its obscene description of certain habits that Islam had prohibited. Arabic poetry thence underwent a major transformation whereby the importance placed over erotic poetry diminished appreciably, with poets of the time changing their topics to the pride of belonging to a particular tribe, motivation to participate in wars, and promotion of Islam and Prophet (PBUH). One of the most eminent of them was Hassan ibn Thabit (R.A.). The tribes of Aws and Khazraj had turned out to be the two divisions of Yathrib before Islam. Hassan ibn Thabit (R.A.) was the poet of Khazraj and Qais ibn al-Khatim was the poet of Aws. They both used to defend their own tribes in the face of the other. But the whole scenario changed following Hassan’s becoming a Muslim, following which he dedicated his poetic faculty to defend and promote Islam and to wage an artistic, yet intellectual, war against those who were trying to attack and defame the religion.
In the early Islamic period, Arabic poetry was greatly influenced by the teachings of Islam regarding morality and ethics, which themselves are rooted in the Holy Quran and the Prophetic traditions. The Quranic principle “Fight in the way those who fight you, but do not transgress” became the cornerstone of Islamic military ethics. Thus, Islam compels its adherents always to act within a highly defined code of ethical behavior if warfare becomes unavoidable at any cost. Furthermore, Islam restricts warfare against enemy combatants only, providing civilians and non-combatants with unprecedented protections.
Converted Arabs’ approach to warfare under the guidance of Prophet Muhammed (PBUH) put forth and exemplified moral values that were in stark contrast to certain pre-Islamic martial practices. Islam sought to end the pre-Islamic martial tradition of combing through enemy’s lines, irrespective of whether those who were present were women, elderly, or children, by introducing the principle of ‘no harm to non-combatants.’ Unlike many armies of that time, Islam prohibited mutilation of bodies, despite Muslims having the retributive right to do so on the respect of the disbelievers disfiguring martyred Hamza (RA), an uncle of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), following the Battle of Uhud. Islam teaches its followers to treat war prisoners fairly as well, thus providing them the right to preserve their dignity.
Labid ibn Rabia (R.A.) represents the transformation from pre-Islamic warrior-culture to Islamic ethics. It is said that Aisha (R.A.) had more than a thousand verses of Labid memorized by heart. It was quite obvious that he could not have filled up such a heavy corpus without mentioning wars. Later, when Labid embraced Islam, he swore not to compose poetry any further after learning the Quran. A verse that is attributed to a Muslim Labid truly encapsulates this transformation whereby he says:
ألا كلّ شيء ما خلا الله باطل وكلّ نعيم لا محالة زائل
(Everything, but Allah, is vain, and all happiness, unconditionally, will vanish).
This verse was later endorsed by the Prophet as the truest words ever said by a poet.
Islamic war poetry reflects the religion’s emphasis on the sanctity and inviolability of life and honor. The Islamic principles of non-aggression and proportionate response, along with the Quranic teaching “Fight those who fight you,” strictly restricted warfare by two dimensions the first being that fighting is allowed only in terms of self-defense or anti-persecution, and the second being that war shall be waged only against enemy combatants, thus creating a code of ethical behavior that is both akin to and compatible with the Western mainstream conception of ‘Just War.’ The Islamic conception of Just War is embedded in its teachings on ‘Al-Qital fi-sabilillah’ (Fighting in the way of Allah), which stand for Divine justice, rather than aggression or conquest.
The Islamic concept of Jihad and the significance Muslims placed on it were so much reflected in early Islamic Arabic poetry. Islam names those who become martyrs fighting in the way of Allah ‘Ash-Shuhada.’ This martyrdom (shahada) was a dream sought-after by most veteran Muslim warriors, as well as by their beloved ones. One can find a self-consoling Abdullah ibn Rawaha (R.A.) instinctively composing the following lines when he was wounded in the Battle of Mu’ta:
هَل أَنتِ إِلّا إِصبَعٌ دَميتِ
وَفي سَبيلِ اللَهِ ما لَقيتِ
يا نَفسُ إِلّا تُقتَلي تَموتي
هَذا حِمامُ المَوتِ قَد صَليتِ
إِن تَسلَمي اليَومَ فَلَن تَفوتي
أَو تُبتَلي فَطالَما عوفيتِ
وَما تَمَنَّيتِ فَقَد أُعطيتِ
إِن تَفعَلي فِعلَهُما هُديتِ
وَإِن تَأَخَّرتِ فَقَد شَقيتِ
(Are you merely a finger that bled?
What you endured was in the path of Allah.
O self, if you are not killed, you will die anyway.
This is the decree of death you have faced.
If you escape today, you will not escape (death eventually).
Or if you are afflicted, then for so long have you been in good health.
And what you wished for, you have indeed been granted.
If you act as they did, you will be guided.
But if you hold back, you will surely be wretched.)
A similar-in-feeling religious persona can be witnessed within the words of the poet Al-Khansa who was mourning over her all four sons who were martyred in the Battle of Qadisiyyah when she said:
الحمدُ للهِ الذي شرّفني بقتلهم جميعاً في سبيله
(Praise be to Allah who honored me by taking them all in His cause.)
The value that Islam attaches and ascribes to Jihad (struggle in the way of Allah) is unbounded. The Muslims of the early Islamic period in general, and of the Prophetic period in particular, had their hearts burning with fire of Jihad and Gaza, which was, obviously, reflected in their poetry as well. The poet Ka’b ibn Malik (R.A.) once composed the following after the Battle of Uhud:
سَائِلْ قريشاً غداةَ السَّفْحِ مِنْ أُحُدِ
ماذا لَقِينا وما لاقوا من الهَرَبِ
كنّا الأُسُودَ وكانوا النُّمورَ إذ زَحَفُوا
ما إنْ نراقِبْ مِنْ آلٍ ولا نَسَبِ
جالُوا وجُلْنا فَمَا فَاؤوا وما رَجَعوا
ونَحْنُ نَثْفُنُهُمْ لَمْ نَأْلُ في الطلبِ
ليسَا سواءً وشتَّى بين أمِرهمَا
حِزْبُ الإلهِ وأهْلُ الشِّركِ والنُّصبِ
(Ask Quraish on the morning of the valley of Uhud,
What we faced and what they faced from fleeing.
We were lions and they were leopards when they advanced;
We paid no heed to kin or lineage.
They charged and we charged, but they did not return or retreat,
While we pursued them, sparing no effort in the chase.
They are not equal, and vast is the difference between their affairs:
The party of God and the people of polytheism and idols.)
Similarly, the tradition of priding in one’s belonging to a particular tribe also got a backlash, the place of which was thenceforth filled with priding in the Muslim identity and the companionship of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). Ka’b’s another set of lines reads:
فِينا الرسُولُ شِهابٌ ثُمَّ يَتْبَعُهُ
نُورٌ مُضيءٌ لَهُ فَضْلٌ على الشُّهُبِ
الحَقُّ مَنْطِقُهُ والعَدْل سِيرَتُهُ
فَمَنْ يُجبْهُ إليهِ يَنْجُ مِنْ تَبَبِ
بَدَا لنا فاتَّبَعْناهُ نُصَدِّقُهُ
وَكَذَّبوه فكُنَّا أسْعَدَ العَربِ
(Among us is the Messenger, a meteor (shining light), then following him
Is a radiant light, possessing grace over all shining stars.
Truth is his speech, and justice is his conduct;
So whoever answers his call will be saved from ruin.
He appeared to us, and we followed him, believing him;
While they denied him, and thus we became the most blessed of Arabs.)
The affirmatively interrogative verse from Quran that reads: “كم من فئة قليلة غلبت فئة كثيرة” led the popular misconception of the invincibility of great numbers, bringing about an increased belief in, and reliance on, the Divine power and intervention, as can be comprehended from the lines of Hassan ibn Thabit (R.A.):
وإلّا فاصبرواْ لجِلاد يوم
يُعِزّ الله فيه من يشاء
وجبريلٌ رسول الله فينا
ورُوح القدس ليس له كِفاء
Otherwise, then be patient for the struggle of a day
In which Allah empowers whom He wills.
And Gabriel, the Messenger of Allah, is among us,
And the Holy Spirit has no equal.
Hassan was, by the time of Prophet (PBUH) himself, the quintessential poet-warrior. He literarily waged a war against the enemies of Islam, as he used to view poetry as a way highly effective in defending Islam and the Prophet (PBUH). Some of his lines falling under this category are given below:
ألا أَبلِغ أبا سفيان عنِّي
فأنت مجوّف نخب هواءٌ
هجوتَ محمّدا فأجبتُ عنه
وعند الله في ذلك الجزاءُ
أتهجوه ولست له بكُفء
فشرُّكما لخيرِكما الفِداءُ
فإن أبي ووالده وعِرضي
لعِرض محمّد منكم وِقاءٌ
Indeed, convey to Abu Sufyan from me:
‹For you are hollow, feeble, mere air.
You satirized Muhammad, so I answered on his behalf,
And with Allah is the reward for that.
Do you satirize him, while you are not his equal?
Your evil is but a sacrifice for his goodness.
For my father, and his father, and my honor,
Are a shield for Muhammad›s honor against you!
In short, by the time Arabic poetry went through major transformations as it went on from the pre-Islamic Jahiliyyah period to the early Islamic period, a paradigm shift could be observed with the themes addressed, the values discussed, and the ethics professed. The early Islamic Arabic poetry seems to have greatly celebrated themes of devotion, submission to Divine fate, defense of the religion, priding with the Prophet (PBUH), and the like, as directly opposed to the Jahiliyyah themes of wine, martial brutality, and obscene descriptions.
Conclusion
The flourishing of poetry among pre-Islamic Bedouin Arabs was deeply intertwined with their unique social and cultural fabric. War poetry, in particular, formed a crucial element of their literary landscape. Poets commanded immense respect, fulfilling diverse roles within their communities as genealogists, soothsayers, historians, and mediators. The raw appeal of war poetry lay in its dual capacity: to glorify one›s own tribe and defame rivals.
This era’s poetry often celebrated martial brutality, fierce tribal loyalty, cycles of vengeance, and unyielding courage. These themes, while central to pre-Islamic identity, were later largely condemned by Islam. A profound transformation swept across Arabian poetry with the rise of Islam. Poets pivoted focus, dedicating their craft to exalting Islamic virtues, celebrating the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), and staunchly defending the new religion from literary attacks. This dramatic thematic shift was instrumental in cultivating a deeper moral consciousness among early Muslims, aligning art with the ethical framework of Islam.
This evolution wasn›t merely a change in subject; it reflected a fundamental reorientation of societal values. Poetry, as a powerful medium, became a tool for articulating the new Islamic worldview, emphasizing unity, justice, and spiritual devotion over tribalism and worldly aggression. This transition repurposed Arabic poetry to serve the foundational principles of a nascent, transformative faith.