AUTOMATONS TO ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE: THE ISLAMIC ROOTS OF ROBOTIC IMAGINATION

Automatons, artificial intelligence, and similar technological innovations all stand as remarkable symbols of human ingenuity. To accomplish more tasks in less time, humans have continuously sought inventions that could assist them in this pursuit. It is truly fascinating that many of the inventions from the medieval era-often called the golden age of science-served as prototypes for today’s modern artificial intelligence. The foundations for numerous innovations of the new age were laid during this period

During this period, many brilliant Muslim scientists made immense inventions, including automatons. In the ancient legends of regions such as America, Africa, and East Asia, we find references to animated statues and mechanical figures. The most influential examples among these are believed to have originated in Egypt during the second millennium BCE. The French Egyptologist Gaston Maspero (1846–1916) observed that the Egyptians of that era even possessed statues that have the ability to speak.

These statues were responding to questions and, at times, even delivering lengthy speeches. Maspero notes that priests regarded them as intermediaries between gods and humans. Furthermore, it was believed that divine spirits resided within these statues and that this presence was what caused their movements and sounds. As part of this belief, the statue of Amun in the temple of Thebes was thought to raise its hand to indicate the next Pharaoh to be chosen from among the royal family.

Asim Qureshi records in his book on the history of engineering, about the Egyptians of that era: they possessed sufficient knowledge of mechanics to develop non-digital robotic machines using simple tools like cups and ropes. Contemporary Greek intellectuals were well aware of Egyptian civilization. Rutherford notes that the Greeks accepted Egyptian culture as a source of various and mysterious knowledge.

According to the historian Herodotus, much of Greek religion was derived from Egypt, indicating that Egyptian influence was deeply embedded in Greek advancements. The Greek epic Iliad by Homer, which narrates the story of the Trojan War, is perhaps the earliest Greek legend to remark on forms of artificial intelligence and robotics. It describes female automatons made of gold, created by Hephaestus, the god of metal and fire, to assist him in his craftwork. These golden maidens were said to possess both speech and skilled craftsmanship. Such Greek mythological ideas about robots later evolved into practical concepts of engineering.

Based on these foundations, later Greek scientists developed technologies that could imitate human body functions. The 3rd-century Greek inventor Ctesibius is credited with creating devices such as the air compressor and hydraulic machines. His robotic statues, which could stand and sit, were reportedly used in ceremonial processions. Although Ctesibius’s original writings have not survived, later inventors and engineers adopted and expanded upon his mechanical innovations.

Indications of the automaton created by the famous Byzantine scientist Philo Mechanicus (280–220 BCE) appear in his work, the Compendium of Mechanics. His creation was extraordinary in its ability to combine various liquids for drink preparation when a cup was placed in its grasp. It was during this era of incredible stories that the Roman Empire ultimately fell, marking the beginning of what would later be referred to as the Dark Ages in Europe.

The Arabian version of this European tale later appeared in The City of Brass, one of the stories in One Thousand and One Nights. Ibn al-Faqih’s historical moment of this event can be penned down as follows:

A military expedition sent by an Umayyad Caliph discovered an abandoned city in the deserts of northwestern Africa. This city, believed to have been built by Prophet Sulayman, had once been the capital of the region before its destruction. During the catastrophe that led to the city’s downfall, all its inhabitants perished and were mummified where they fell. Among them was the beautiful queen of the realm—embalmed, dressed in royal garments, and seated upon her throne. Two armed automatons stood beside her as her guards. When one of the explorers later tried to steal the jewels from the queen’s body, the automatons sprang into action and stopped him.

 

According to historian E. R. Truitt in her book Medieval Robots, after the fall of Rome, the mechanical arts were preserved in the Middle East-first by the Byzantines and later by the Arabs. Around 850 CE, three brothers known collectively as Banu Musa published The Book of Ingenious Devices, a remarkable compilation containing detailed illustrations of about a hundred automatic machines, including several operated by water power.

The brothers Ahmad, Muhammad, and Hasan ibn Musa ibn Shakir were known as the “Brothers from Khurasan” and served at the famed Bayt al-Hikmah (House of Wisdom) in Baghdad. Although their book did not discuss humanoid automatons specifically, the celebrated 12th-century genius al-Jazari later built upon their mechanical innovations to develop more sophisticated automated machines and devices. During the era of Banu Musa and al-Jazari, Arab-Islamic science flourished. Robotic inventions, inspired by the works of Alexandrian scientists, continued to evolve in Egypt during the Islamic period as well.

According to Ayyubid historian Ibn Muyassar-whose account was later preserved by the Egyptian historian al-Maqrizi-the Fatimid vizier al-Afdal Shahanshah of the 12th century had mechanical statues adorned with fashionable garments and jewellery. These automatons would bow before him as he entered his hall, sing melodious songs, and then rise to their positions once he was seated.

The significance of al-Jazari’s contributions to the history of engineering cannot be overstated. His inventions had a lasting influence on the later development of steam engines and internal combustion engines, paving the way for automatic control systems and other modern machinery. Even today, al-Jazari’s impact remains evident in the field of mechanical engineering.

As a result, several historians have referred to al-Jazari as the “father of modern engineering.” Dr. Salim al-Hassani, Chairman of the Foundation for Science, Technology and Civilisation at the University of Manchester, identified one of al-Jazari’s creations as a form of robot and remarked that al-Jazari rightfully deserves the title “father of robotics.”

Robotic designs from the Islamic world gradually spread to Europe. Singing robots, robotic servants, mechanical animals, and artificial songbirds were among the many creations developed during this period. Such automatons were used in the courts of Baghdad, Damascus, Constantinople, and Karakorum. Historian E. R. Truitt notes that these marvels often reached medieval Europe as gifts from foreign rulers.

Western scholars of the Middle Ages began to study these engineering ideas with keen interest. Gerbert of Aurillac, a 10th-century French priest who studied science in Córdoba, introduced advanced mathematical systems-including the use of the abacus and Arabic numerals-to northern Europe. Writings composed about a century after his death claim that Gerbert had constructed a special type of robot. This talking humanoid automaton was said to have been capable of predicting celestial phenomena-an extraordinary concept long before the dawn of the scientific age.